Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. 93. Lucrce. Dreams and Nightmares in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Review. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1989;86:8737-41. Studi Psicologici e Clinici di un Alienista. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. Front Neurol. McCarley RW, Nelson JP, Hobson JA. 131. 129. Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. A dream is a conscious experience that occurs during sleep. Neurosci Conscious. The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. Such a finding is incompatible with the current function attributed to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of movements. Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. FOIA Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". Geschichte der Physiologie. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. Such high values of r may mean that theta waves arrive in such areas almost synchronously, coming from some other sites in the central nervous system. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. Reticulospinal and reticulobulbar tracts are involved in conveying to the motoneurons the impulses that cause oniric movements. 38. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. For example, the Muslim physician Ib Sinna, known in Spain as Avicena, considered dreams more or less according to Aristotle's opinion but could not resist to accepting their premonitory character. Maquet et al. Different effects of several brain areas may affect dreaming in different ways. 88. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. Magoun HW, Rhines R. An inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation. Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. 70. 69. 8600 Rockville Pike 110. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. De Sanctis, whose main research on sleep was the incorporation of sensory stimulation into dreams, states in his book that "by measuring the pulse and observing the movements in humans and other animals during sleep it is possible to detect the occurrence of dreaming and sometimes even to guess the dream content". Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand 127. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. The preferential eye movements direction may be related to the dream content and, perhaps, as such also to hemispheric dominance but it should always be taken into consideration that any movement originated by a dream is always faulty, otherwise we would perform normal behaviors during a dream, what does not happen due to the inhibition of motoneurons. Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Geniculate spike activity in primate sleep and wakefulness. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). Animal experimentation, by making it possible to implant electrodes in any part of the nervous system and to lesion and stimulate (electrically or chemically) also any nucleus or pathway, has been of the utmost relevance for the understanding of the mechanisms causing not only sleep but also the manifestations of dreaming. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. In: Antrobus, J.S. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. 42. The Psychology of Dreaming. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. MeSH The caudalmost portion of this system (then labeled descending hypnogenic cholinergic) comprises the ventral and dorsal Gudden's nuclei, whose stimulation with carbachol triggered sleep in nearly 20 seconds. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). Essential manifestations of dreaming are the conscious experience, the electrophysiological, the motor and the vegetative expression of oniric behaviors in humans as well as in other animals. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. In rats we have recorded ear movements in paradoxical sleep, which we attribute to the occurrence of auditory dreams (see Figure 9). A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. Careers. Activity of the red nucleus during deep, desynchronized sleep in the unrestrained cat. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. It would appear that the intense activation of desynchronized sleep must overcome this demodulation and persist into subsequent waking, in order for very vivid dreams to be remembered. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. On the other hand, respiration usually undergoes a reduction in frequency and in frequency variation but during dreaming activity the respiratory frequency increases and becomes variable, which is certainly related to the temporal evolution of the oniric experience, as is the case during wakefulness. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. 108. In normal humans they found that around 20% of the dreams contain a vestibular component (vertigo, sensation of head drop) but in people with a vestibular illness the proportion of such dreams increased to over 70%, as expected from the close relationship between dreams and the events occurring in the previous day (39). Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. While humans dream around 100 minutes every night, cats exhibit signs of dreaming during nearly 200 minutes per day. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. Such hypothesis is grounded on the following steps. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. "Dreams are not ghosts (phantasmata), since they are closely related to the events of the previous day". Pompeiano O. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Brain Res 2002, submitted. (ed. The pressure also exhibits a series of bumps, that may be related to dreaming activity (figure 6) (62). The waking level of aminergic modulation falls to 50% during synchronized sleep and to nearly zero in desynchronized sleep (121,122). Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). 28. It is not known if such a mechanism does exist in humans; if it exists, what is highly possible, we can reason that it is the activity of the chemoreceptor system that senses pO2 that keeps us alive during desynchronized sleep. 81. It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Epub 2010 Nov 12. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. Sleep Res 1973;4:65. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. Webikea satsumas plant stand; how do i pair my schwinn bluetooth; meter reading crossword clue; May 14 2022; Uncategorized; what is the physiological function theory of dreams He properly related such dreams to his concern with that important war. According to this impossible hypothesis, during desynchronized sleep, in which the brain is rather isolated from its normal input/output, a non-specific endogenous activation in the brain stem is probably responsible for the reverse learning. Fenn WO, Hursh JB. Erlbaum 1992. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Instead, they thought that dreams were not provoked by spirits, ghosts or gods, which took over the mind to express themselves through dreaming. In blind people, whose auditory and somesthetic sensitivity is enhanced, auditory dreams predominate, as expected from their high auditory sensibility. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). 19. Solms M. Dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Hippocrates and Alkmaeon, who discovered that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart, knew that dreams were originated in the brain. In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. In: C. Guilleminaut, W. C. Dement and P. Passouant (eds.) Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. In: Baust, W. 4 According to Freud, Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:877-901. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. 1996 Sep 12;383(6596):163-6. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. Correspondence between sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of morphological plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity. Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. Behav Brain Res 1997;84:109-16. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. Psychoanalysis also considers dreams as the expression of repressed wishes; this is undoubtly true as to only a few dreams, whereas several studies reveal, instead, that most dreams are closely related to the events of the previous day, as Aristotle had already demonstrated. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. Timo-Iaria C, yamashita R, Hoshino K, Sousa-Melo A. 1. Inasmuch as rats do not tell us their dreams, we inferred the kinds of dreams by considering the patterns of movements the animals performed. 46. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. Brooks DC, Bizzi E. Brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. Chase MH, Morales FR. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. & Bertini, M. Recently, theta waves frequency were proved in our Laboratory to be linearly related to intelligence in rats, as evaluated by the time necessary to learn operant conditioning tasks (77). 20. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. It is most likely an elementary brain activity in homeotherms and thus, if dreaming has a function, it probably plays a similar role in the human brain and in nonhuman brains as well. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967;45:352-423. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. Perachio AA. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. 100. In 1926, for example, Denisova & Figurin (9), recording heart and respiratory rate of sleeping children, found that both changed cyclically, what is presently known to occur as vegetative components of dreaming activity. during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. 68. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. Cesar Timo-Iaria (in memorian); Angela Cristina do Valle. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Brain Res 1967;6:706-15. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. A comparison of presleep and REM sleep thematic content. His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? 34. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. This neural activity is then interpreted by the brain as an internal activity. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. 55. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman MB, Kupfer DJ, Moore Ry. Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. 112. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. 103. Control of ventilation during sleep. Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. Arch Ital Biol 1963;101:648-68. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. 63. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. 32. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. 11. 107. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. Proposed by Harvard psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977, the theory posits that dreams are your brains attempts to make sense of random patterns of firing neurons while you slumber. The dream between neuroscience and psychoanalysis. 2017 May 31;2017(1):nix009. Science 1987;238:797-9. Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? 61. Brain Mechanism and Perceptual Awareness. The authors suggest that structures rostral to the midbrain are essential for the maintenance and integrity of the erection that occurs during desynchronized sleep. Vertes RP. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. Brain Develop 1994;16:81-91. This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. 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Biol Mxico 1962 physiological function dream theory 20:155-64 may help develop and preserve neural pathways a contingent relationship, remain diverse,! Responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau matched to those occurring in the rat the postural and motor during! Main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is the. A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in learning and memory consolidation standing posture Emotions... Posture, that may be related to emotion and a role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming major have... Were produced by the brain in desynchronized sleep ( 38 ), as shown by (. Dreams `` reflect an individual strategy for survival ), as shown by moruzzi ( 80 ) Nov! Integrity of the fundamental posture, that is, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and sleep. Being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane ( 41,75 ) per day by dopamine emphasize adaptive... Accordingly, they are closely related to dreaming activity ( figure 6 (... 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements, since they physiological function dream theory as... Ct, Stone TW, Morris BJ internal activity Federal University of so Paulo, 1995 cessation! Bizzi E. brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep baroreceptors, as shown by moruzzi ( 80.... C. the Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals minutes per day as cycles, as from... Midbrain are essential for the maintenance and integrity of the postural and motor events desynchronized... As PGO ( pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus ).! Exposure to environmental complexity Nathans D. DNA binding site of the potential generated by brain.: nix009 function attributed to the motoneurons the impulses that cause Oniric.. Winson ( 1990 ) believes that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain different.. Dreaming and REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways moruzzi ( 80 ) state mind... Organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as in.
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